Cacao (Theobromacacao L.) climate zones and its associated agrobiodiversity in Arauca, Colombia.

Background: Cacao (Theobromacacao L) is one of the most relevant crops in terms of economy and social rural development in Colombia. Cacao is also an important crop due to its potential to replace illicit crops and it is related to less deforestation and preserves the biodiversity. There are several cacao districts in Colombia, one of these being Arauca. The Department of Arauca is the second largest cocoa producing region in Colombia; however, it is heavily affected by armed conflict. To raise the knowledge and technology available in the region, integrating data on the occurrence of cacao farms with climatic variables becomes a powerful socioeconomic mapping tool for maintaining agrobiodiversity and food security in the region. Consequently, this type of agrodiversity data and agroclimatic approaches help to better manage agrobiodiversity, as in the cacao region of Arauca. These tools are even more relevant in biodiverse regions, such as flooded savannahs and tropical forest ecosystems, which are currently undergoing drastic changes due to agricultural expansion and climate change. One of the knowledge gaps in Colombia´s cacao regions is that there are currently no agroclimatic maps made with a social and scientific approach. This study aimed to provide a database of the spatial distribution of cacao farms in Arauca, as well as agroclimatic maps that identify and locate cacao climate regions in Arauca. We also present a presence-only matrix consisting of twenty-six tree species, or agrobiodiversity, distributed across the study region and specifically associated with the cacao forestry systems in Arauca. New information: We present the first database of both climate and agrobiodiversity data related to cacao farms in Arauca, developed with a research and socioeconomic vision that generated a novel approach for the agroclimatic zoning of cocoa in the Arauca Region and Colombia. Using 1,538 cacao farms at the regional scale, we identified two national and six regional-scale climate and soil regions. The selection at the local scale allowed us to classify 180 cacao farms comprising nine agroclimatic clusters in Arauca. We found twenty-six tree species distributed across the cacao climate zones. This dataset and its related maps also represent the agrobiodiversity of cultivated cacao locally. This is the most complete climate and agrobiodiversity dataset of cacao farms distribution in one of the top cocoa-producing regions in the country. These outputs are crucial because they constitute a baseline for developing research in the biodiversity of agroforestry systems, pests and diseases, pollutant presence, genetics, post-harvest processing and cocoa quality and safety.

Basicranial Modular Organization. A Study in the Araucanian Horse of Colombia.

The skull is divided into neurocranium and splanchnocranium, and its variation allows ecomorphological studies to learn about possible evolutionary and adaptive characteristics. The basicranial organization of the neurocranium and splanchnocranium modules was studied in a sample of 31 skulls from adult Araucanian horses by means of 2D geometric morphometric techniques. The neurocranium and splanchnocranium modules on the ventral aspect were analyzed separately using a set of 31 landmarks. The RV coefficient (the multivariate analog of a correlation) was estimated to analyze the independence of these two parts, as well as their morphological integration, using a two-block analysis of least squares. The study results confirm the modular development of the neurocranium and the splanchnocranium, the former being more stable than the latter as well as low morphological integration between the two. The development between both parties is structured in a modular way but allows relative independence. Now it would be interesting for future studies to add muscles (those that connect the cranial parts, but also the cervical), the hyoid apparatus, and the ossicles of the internal ear and the jaw and analyze if they behave as integrated modules between them. Since this research has been conducted at the subspecific breed level, it could be plausible that in other breeds, this integrative development was different.

Morphological and molecular confirmation of Ornithodoros hasei (Schulze, 1935) (Acari: Argasidae) in Colombia.

A large number of tick species are proven vectors for the transmission of bacteria, protozoa, and viruses. Soft ticks (Acari: Argasidae) in South America have been found to be the most frequent carriers of borreliae of the relapsing fever group (RFG); however, there are several information gaps specially on the taxonomy and distribution of some tick species. Here, we used light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and PCR amplification of a fragment of the mitochondrial 16S rRNA gene to evaluate 174 larvae of Ornithodoros (Argasidae) collected from three bat species (Eptesicus orinocensis, Molossus rufus and Noctilio albiventris) in the Orinoquia Region of Colombia. The morphological and molecular results confirmed that all the analyzed larvae corresponded to Ornithodoros hasei. Comparisons of mitochondrial 16S rDNA sequences showed low genetic divergence (0% - 0.3%) between larvae of the Department of Arauca in the Orinoquia Region and higher genetic divergence (3.4 - 4.7%) in sequences from other American countries. Our work represents the most recent collection of this species in Colombia and provides a molecular evaluation for the first time. Moreover, a new association of O. hasei with bats such as E. orinocensis is documented. Considering the wide distribution of O. hasei in the American Continent, and its putative role as vector for Borrelia, integrative studies that involve morphological, morphometric, molecular data and experimental crosses are needed to determine if the higher genetic distances are associated with cryptic speciation, as detected in other tick complexes, or represent genetic divergences among geographically different populations of O. hasei.

Diagnóstico de las prácticas de beneficio del cacao en el departamento de Arauca

Introducción. Arauca es el segundo productor de cacao en Colombia; no obstante, sus características de calidad se ven afectadas por las prácticas de beneficio aplicadas, es decir, los procesos de fermentación y secado. Objetivo. Identificar las prácticas de beneficio del cacao que se realizan en las principales zonas cacaoteras del departamento de Arauca. Materiales y métodos. Se hizo un trabajo de campo en fincas cacaoteras ubicadas en los municipios de Saravena, Fortul, Tame y Arauquita, en el departamento de Arauca, donde se obtuvo información acerca de la identificación de la finca, las características del cultivo, y las prácticas de cosecha y beneficio. Además, se efectuó un registro fotográfico del área donde se realiza el beneficio del cacao. Análisis y resultados. En Arauca, la mayoría de las fincas cacaoteras utilizan en la etapa de fermentación cajones de madera sencillos y tipo escalera, costales, canecas de plástico y cajón de cemento; además, se hace una fermentación directamente en el suelo a través de un apilamiento. Con respecto a la etapa de secado solar, se mencionan estructuras como casa-elba (secadores movibles), tendales y marquesina como los métodos más desarrollados en el beneficio de la región de Arauca. Conclusión. En la región de Arauca, en el beneficio del cacao, hay una relación directa entre las etapas de fermentación y secado, y los factores socio-económicos y culturales, relación que se expresa en la heterogeneidad de las características finales del grano de cacao que produce esta región.

Introduction. Arauca region is the second largest producer of cocoa in Colombia. The cocoa quality characteristics are important, which are affected by the applied post-harvest practices, i.e. the fermentation and drying processes. Objective. Identify the cocoa post-harvest practices carried out in the main cocoa areas of the department of Arauca. Materials and methods. Fieldwork was performed on cocoa farms located in Saravena, Fortul, Tame and Arauquita, towns in the department of Arauca, where information about farm identification, crop characteristics, harvest practices and post-harvest handling was obtained. In addition, a photographic record of the area, where cocoa post-harvest handling is performed, was made. Analysis and Results. In Arauca, most cocoa farms used in the fermentation stage simple wooden boxes and ladder type, sacks, cans, plastic and cement box; moreover, fermentation is carried out directly on the ground through a pile. With regard to sun drying stage, home elba structures (movable dryers), awnings and solar driers with removable plastic siding are mentioned as the most developed methods in the post-harvest handling in Arauca region. Conclusion. In Arauca region, post-harvest handling through fermentation and drying stages, a direct relationship between the post-harvest practices and socio-economic and cultural factors is performed, introducing heterogeneity in the final characteristics of the cocoa bean that this region produces.

Introdução. Arauca é o segundo produtor de cacau da Colombia, sendo importantes suas caraterísticas de qualidade, as quais vêm-se afetadas pelas praticas de beneficio do cacau aplicadas, é dizer, os processos de fermentação e secagem. Objetivo. Identificar as práticas de beneficio do cacau que realiza-se nas principais zonas de produção de cacau do estado de Arauca. Materiais e Métodos. Realizou-se um trabalho nas chácaras de produção de cacau que ficam nos municípios de Seravena, Fortul, Tame e Arauquita no estado de Arauca. Onde obteve-se informação sob chácara, como, caraterísticas de cultivo, e praticas de colher e beneficio. Ainda, efetuou-se registro fotográfico da área onde realiza-se o beneficio do cacau. Analises e Resultados. Em Arauca, as maiorias das chácaras de cacau utilizam na etapa de fermentação um caixote de madeira e tipo degrau, costais, cesto de plástico, e caixote de cimento; a fermentação e realizado no chão medite um empilhamento. A respeito à etapa de secagem solar, mencionou-se estruturas como casa-elba (secadores de móveis), tendales, marquesina como os métodos mais desenvolvidos no beneficio do estado de Arauca. Conclusão. Na régio de Arauca o beneficio do cacau através das etapas de fermentação e secagem, tem-se uma relação direta entre as praticas de beneficio e os fatores socioeconômicos e culturais, apresentando se heterogeneidades nas caraterísticas finais do grão que produze esta região.

Metabolitos volátiles presentes en Protium heptaphyllum (Aubl.) March. colectado en Tame (Arauca - Colombia) / Volatil metabolites of Protium heptaphyllum (Aubl.) March. from Tame (Arauca-Colombia)

This paper reports the identification of volatile components of the leaves, flowers, resin of the stem, and bark of the branches of the tree Protium heptaphyllum (Aubl.) March. collected from East Plains, Orinoquia, Colombia. The main constituents identified by GC-MS in the volatile fraction of the leaves were guaiol (14,4 percent), alpha-copaene (8,6 percent), 1,10-di-epi-cubenol (8,1 percent), beta-cariophyllene (5,7 percent), and gamma-cadinene (5,4 percent). Germacrene D (13,9 percent), germacrene B (13,4 percent), bicyclogermacrene (11,8 percent), and limonene (8,3 percent) were determined in the flowers, while p-cymene (30,1 percent), alpha-pinene (22,1 percent), and limonene (14,4 percent) were identified in the resin; finally, germacrene D (27,7 percent), 1,10-di-epi-cubenol (7,9 percent), guaiol (7,4 percent), and gamma-cadinene (6,9 percent) were found in the bark. The analysis of the resin showed a high percent of monoterpenes (- 60 percent); while the leaves presented a high content of oxygenated sesquiterpenes (- 60 percent); flowers and bark showed a high composition of sesquiterpenes (40-50 percent).

En este trabajo se reporta la identificación de los componentes volátiles de hojas, flores, resina del tallo y corteza de las ramas del árbol Protium heptaphyllum (Aubl.) March. recolectado en los Llanos Orientales, Orinoquía, Colombia. Los constituyentes mayoritarios identificados por GC-MS en la fracción volátil de las hojas fueron guaiol (14,4 por ciento), alfa-copaeno (8,6 por ciento), 1,10-di-epi-cubenol (8,1 por ciento), trans-beta-cariofileno (5,7 por ciento) gamma -cadineno (5,4 por ciento). Germacreno D (13,9 por ciento), germacreno B (13,4 por ciento), biciclogermacreno (11,8 por ciento) y limoneno (8,3 por ciento) se determinaron en las flores, mientras que, p-cimeno (30,1 por ciento), alfa-pineno (22,1 por ciento) y limoneno (14,4 por ciento) se identificaron en la resina; finalmente, germacreno D (27,7 por ciento), 1,10-di-epi-cubenol (7,9 por ciento), guaiol (7,4 por ciento) gamma -cadineno (6,9 por ciento) se encontraron en la corteza. El análisis de la resina mostró un alto porcentaje de monoterpenos (- 60 por ciento); mientras que, las hojas presentaron una alta proporción de sesquiterpenos oxigenados (- 60 por ciento); las flores y la corteza mostraron una alta composición de sesquiterpenos (40-50 por ciento).